E-Commerce Offer vs Invitation to Treat - 2301 Words

Q1) Consider the legal status of Web advert and whether it would amount to an offer in law; Q2) If so, consider whether the filling in of the buy now form amounted to an acceptance of the offer; Q3) Outline the consumer buyers rights under the Distance Selling Regulations as they may apply to this sale. In this assignment I must conclude whether the advert from Surjits website constitutes a lawful offer or an Invitation to Treat. I will test this by comparing the two alternatives and assessing which is more applicable to the case study. Offer V Invitation to Treat To establish the difference between an offer by an organisation or if it is advertising an Invitation to Treat is whether the advert can be likened to that of a shop†¦show more content†¦To then complete the form would amount to confirmation of negotiations by the consumer but not acceptance of sale. At which Surjit can refuse the sale of the cameras. Surjit has not specifically stated that the sales offer was an invitation to treat. This could prove a huge problem for him because websites have not been tested against the three stage rule in the U.K of invitation to treat, offer and acceptance. It could therefore be easily argued that Surjit is bound by a contract as it seems Argos believed they might have been. The fact that Argos settled out of court raises suspicion. If the case study is to be accepted as an established offer, then Surjit would have to comply with the Distance Selling Regulations 2000 (DSR 2000). These regulations are to protect consumers by insisting that influential information is supplied to customer before and after the contract has been entered. If email has been used to provide information to the seller then it is deemed fit for this method of communication to be used to inform consumers. The information in regulation to the Distance Selling 2000 includes; 1. the identity of the supplier and (where the contract requires payment in advance) the suppliers address; 2. a description of the main characteristics of the goods or services; 3. the price of the goods or services, including allShow MoreRelatedAustralian Business Law Summary6492 Words   |  26 Pagescontracts) Topic 3b: Elements of a simple contract 1. intention to create legal relationship - presumed in commercial but not family/social relationships; rebuttable by evidence 2. Mutual agreement - often proven by identifying separate offer amp; acceptance; can also be proven by circumstances / conduct 3. Consideration - promises need to be mutual, from each party to the other. Not required for formal contracts such as deeds 4. legal capacity of all parties’ capacity (eg mentalRead MoreHistory of Common Law9609 Words   |  39 PagesHISTORY OF COMMON LAW | STATUTORY FRAMEWORK * Great Britain (E/W/S) * United Kingdom (GB + NI) * British Islands (UK + Isle of Man + Channel Isles) ENGLISH LAW = The legal system of England and Wales (â€Å"the laws of England and Wales† from 1967). These laws mainly deal with issues of property, theft, inheritance, money†¦ The legal system of England and Wales is the basis of most legal systems in the Commonwealth and the US (except Louisiana). THREE MAJOR LEGAL SYSTEMS IN THE WORLD Read MoreMarketing and E-commerce Business65852 Words   |  264 PagesComplete Listing of Chapter Opening Cases, Insight Cases, E-commerce in Action Cases, and Case Studies CHAPTER 1 THE REVOLUTION IS JUST BEGINNING Opening Case: Pinterest: A Picture Is Worth a Thousand Words Insight on Technology: Will Apps Make the Web Irrelevant? Insight on Business: Start-Up Boot Camp Insight on Society: Facebook and the Age of Privacy Case Study: The Pirate Bay: Searching for a Safe Haven CHAPTER 2 E-COMMERCE BUSINESS MODELS AND CONCEPTS Opening Case: Twitter’s BusinessRead MoreOnline Banking42019 Words   |  169 Pagescategorized in to three types: (i) The Basic Level Service is the banks’ websites which disseminate information on different products and services offered to customers and members of public in general. It may receive and reply to customers’ queries through e-mail, (ii) In the next level are Simple Transactional Websites which allow customers to submit their instructions, applications for different services, queries on their account balances, etc, but do not permit any fund-based transactions on their accountsRead MoreState and Local Tax Outline42910 Words   |  172 Pagesa use tax. 5. HYPO: if you are Wal Mart and you want to compete with Amazon what do you do? a. Create a separate entity – i.e. Walmart.com, to sell the book. Chapter 2 2. a. CHAPTER 2: JURISDICTION TO TAX Section 1: Due Process And Commerce Clause Restraints On State Taxing Jxn 1. Similar concept to jxn over person for purpose of non resident jxn, same inquiry. 2. DP: Minimum contacts, purposeful availment, and NO requirement of physical presence, fairness notion/ notice, can’tRead MoreCrm in Supermarkets30832 Words   |  124 PagesEB 2003-02 February 2003 FOOD INDUSTRY MANAGEMENT CORNELL U N I V E R S I T Y Customer Relationship Marketing (CRM) in the U.S. Supermarket Industry: Current Status and Prospects Gerard F. Hawkes Senior Extension Associate Food Industry Management Program Department of Applied Economics and Management College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-7801 Teaching †¢ Research †¢ Executive Education IT IS THE POLICY OF CORNELL UNIVERSITY actively to supportRead MoreAn Agreement Not Enforceable By Law Is Said To Be Void9818 Words   |  40 Pagesunjust enrichment. 4. what is offer, acceptance, consideration, consent and capacity to contract offer ; According to sec 2[a] â€Å" When one person signifies to another his willingness to door to abstain from doing anything with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence he is said to make an offer. The offer is also known a proposal or it is also caller promise. The person who makes the offer is called an offeror. 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NEW   TRENDS   * XEROX  Developed   Quality  Strategy   - Leadership Through Quality –     Ã‚  Competitive  Ã‚   Employee   Quality Improvement Benchmarking   Involvement    Process   * With  LTQ,  management   utilized  operational  measures  such  as  Ã‚  Read MoreThe Mind of a Marketing Manager26114 Words   |  105 Pagesaero space. At its simplest it defines where and how to compete in each chosen market, and the business model and resources which will be required in order to achieve this. * Market strategy is the core part of the business strategy, and offers marketers a higher domain in which to influence the business direction, focus and priorities. * Marketing strategy is then more functional and operational - defining how brands, prod ucts, channels and communications must be developed

My Journey to America Free Essays

My journey to America is one unforgettable experience. I say this not because I was able to travel to the land of my dreams but mainly because the journey had improved my outlook in life through the many lessons and insights it had taught. My country of origin is Kenya, located in Eastern Africa. We will write a custom essay sample on My Journey to America or any similar topic only for you Order Now Separating these two countries is the Pacific Ocean,  Ã‚   a large body of water that seemed to signify the impossibility of my coming here (Crofton, 1994, p. 434). But fortunately, this huge obstacle was overcome, and now I am enjoying the fun and opportunities offered by a country that had only once been a dream. You just cannot imagine the excitement I had felt when I learned that I will travel to America. For the majority of Africans, America is a land of golden opportunity, a place that one can better himself. It offers a rare experience in advancement in technology, an essential factor to a person’s twentieth century learning. And above all, America had many fun, exciting and historical places to visit. Armed with such lofty thoughts in mind, going through the hassle of filing for travel papers at the US Embassy meant nothing to me. I  Ã‚   bade goodbye to Kenya last __________. My itinerary was from Nairobi, Kenya to ______, USA. It would take approximately ______ hours to reach the US.   On the plane I tried to contain my excitement although flying above the wide Pacific Ocean was both thrilling and nerve-wracking. Looking down below from the window of the plane, I can see a wide expanse of blue water, stretching miles and miles beyond as if it would never end. Although the sight was beautiful to behold, I cannot wait to see land for by then I suddenly felt an awesome fear of being in a place totally unknown, as if I was lost in the middle of nowhere. I realized then that uprooting oneself from familiar places is not that easy, after all. As the plane made its way across the earth,   my mind was filled with thoughts of what I will going to do in America, the friends that I will meet, the places I will visit and the things that I will have. The thoughts all came to me at once, both thrilling and enchanting me at the same time. Amidst   these thoughts, my mind   raced back to the place I just left behind, the loved ones that I will not see   for sometime and   the places that surprisingly I will miss, and then out of nowhere I felt nostalgic and if I was not strong   enough tears would have fallen from my eyes. It was painful to realize that for me to experience something new, I had to let go of something that I hold dear. But I am glad to think that someday I will be back. Finally, after some time I approached the place that for more than a century had drawn all kinds of races and nationalities to its shores like a magnet. I expected the view from above to be so much different from the aerial view of the country and continent I just left behind. True enough it was way, way different. Whereas the place I had just left was dominated by forest and desert that was spotted with human dwellings and buildings, the view of America from the air was just breathtaking to me. A vast array of buildings endlessly crowded themselves below, tall skyscrapers and the Statue of Liberty seemed to reach out to me in welcome. I could not believe that the famous  Ã‚   America was right in front of me!   Ã‚  I felt an awesome sense of self-fulfillment then, perhaps because America had this magical way of making a person think that finally he had seen the real world. Naturally I could not wait to set my feet in the America soil.   For the first time in my life I was surrounded with people who look different from me. In the airport were white people, brown skinned people and dark ones like me. I was fascinated with the presence of different nationalities that were busy talking to one another in a language I do not understand and hurrying past me to places God knows where. I realized later that I will often come across these different types of people in just any street in America. I wonder much about them, the places that they came from and the loved ones that they left behind in a country far away. I know that most of them come to America to earn more money, and I wonder if they fulfilled that goal. Settling here for _________ (months or years) now, I can say with authority that foreigners here oftentimes experienced physical, emotional and mental suffering. Many of them are homesick.   There is no place, after all, that man will be untouched by the negative experiences of life. Such realization had developed in   me a deeper respect for people who   left their homeland to find jobs in other shores. For the many successful people who pass my way daily, I can say that indeed America is a land of golden opportunity, but only for the people who work hard. In life no matter where we are we just cannot expect a golden egg to fall on our lap. Here there are also many poor people. I do not know why they lived that way but one thing America taught me is that if you want something good to happen in your life then you must be willing to sacrifice, to let many sweats fall from your forehead.   Ã‚  A person should not wait for opportunity, he must look for it and when he found that opportunity he must grab it with both hands. The list of beautiful places to visit and exciting things to do in America is endless. There are many big parks decorated with beautiful flowers and housed different kinds of animals (many of these animals are native to my homeland like tigers and elephants).   When I look a these caged animals I cannot help but compare them to their relatives back home who roamed   freely in the African wild. America is not a place of freedom for them but on the contrary, America is a trap, a prison. I felt sad but these are the prices that need to be paid if people of America are to see a live African wildlife. Furthermore, America had many large shopping centers filled with all sorts of stuff. They are very inviting to touch, look and if I have the money, to buy. There are just many things to choose from, all of them beautiful. It is true that America has lots of things to offer especially for a Kenyan like me. Being surrounded by all these beautiful things make me look at life more positively. I do have negative experiences in America but I would cite only one that I know is experienced by most foreign people like me and it is the ugly face of racial discrimination. I know that racial discrimination is present when the people of other races I associate with treat me with distrust without reason. I know some of them did not actually wanted the feeling to come but it involuntarily sprung up somewhere. Racial discrimination is a big problem here.   This just shows that great America, like any other country in the world, had its own issues to solve. Obviously, there are many differences between America and my home country but there is one difference that I would like to share here. It seemed to me that the people who live in America are always in a hurry. It seemed that they have so many things to do but do not have the time to do it. That is why most Americans (including those who are not but lived here) are always in a perpetual state of stress. They are busy chasing â€Å"something† so that they do not have the time â€Å"to smell the flowers†. This is so much unlike Kenya. There it seemed we have plenty of time to rest, to reflect. Perhaps because our lives are less complicated, our dreams are simpler. For most Kenyan families providing daily food on the table is a big accomplishment. My journey to America is an adventure of a lifetime. I will never forget the many new   experiences that came along     and the lessons it had taught me. Indeed I can say that my journey to America had opened doors in my life that were once closed. Reference Crofton, Ian (editor). (1994). The Guinness Compact Encyclopedia. London: Guinness Publishing Limited. How to cite My Journey to America, Essay examples

Monitor and Improve Learning Effectiveness

Question: Discuss about the Monitor and Improve Learning Effectiveness. Answer: Introduction: 1. The Communities of Practice has emerged to be an influential factor of the current management system in an organisation. Robert (2006) identifies CoPs as a key domain that supports knowledge creation. It acts as a source of competitive advantage for the modern business organisations. CoPs are an essential method of knowledge management to enhance intellectual capital by promoting knowledge exchange and continuous learning (Robert, 2006). For example, the Australian Medical Association is considered as a group of professional medical experts who develop rules and regulations of medical practices in Australia. The primary role of the community is to enforce universal laws that must be followed by every medical practitioner in Australia. Attending the conference held by the AMA provides the medical staffs with new knowledge and develops their skills. Furthermore, the conference held by the AMA is helpful is sharing thoughts and experience of the doctors and other medical practitioners. Hence, it can be seen that the networks of Communities of Practice help in sharing knowledge and enables the organisation with continuous development of its employees skills. Sharing of knowledge with the help of Communities of Practices improves the efficiency and effectiveness of the organisations by providing the staffs with a platform to share knowledge and learn new things through the exchange of experiences. 2. The project to decrease the carbon footprint of the organisation needs thorough planning to meet the realistic goals and targets. Breaking down the overall plan into particular steps can be evident for a successful outcome. In the meantime, workable plans for the large project must include environment-friendly steps that will identify the main agenda of the projects as well as the issues attached to the same. First of all, the workable plan must represent what the organisation is trying to accomplish through the large-scale project. According to the deliverables, efficient team members must be selected, and objectives must be listed (Monteserin Amandi, 2013). Herein, training of the team members will be crucial so that each of the members of the team can play a successful role. Being a team leader of the given project, setting up the convenient networks will be one of the challenging issues. Meanwhile, for the best of my knowledge, I will provide support, insight, information, resources and feedback to the team members to create a sustainable network throughout the project life. In this way, the senior team members can support the talented employees to utilise the resources for effective productivity (Snchez, Snchez, Collado-Ruiz, Cebrin-Tarrasn, 2013). In case implementing the plan, interactions and exchange of concepts will be crucial making the potential stakeholders understand about the results of the proceedings. 3. Interstate conferences act as a pool of knowledge for the employees. It is important to note that an organisation is not capable of affording the fund of sending all employees to the interstate conferences to enhance their knowledge and practical skills. Therefore, selected and best employees of the organisation are sent to attend the regional conferences. The knowledge and learning gained from the conferences are useful for all employees and therefore, the person attending the interstate conference is asked to prepare a summary to share the knowledge with every member of the organisation. The procedure helps to judge the learning capability of the selected employees and share the knowledge with other employees who were unable to attend the interstate conferences due to lack of resources. Hence, it helps to meet the goals of gaining knowledge from the interstate conferences and passing the information to every employee of the organisation (Tuan, 2015). If an example is considered, it can be seen that the management level employee or higher level officials of a healthcare organisation attend the regional conferences organised by the Australia Medical Association to convey the information collected from the conference among the other medical practitioners in the organisation. Therefore, it can be said that it is an essential procedure of knowledge sharing and enhancing employees skills and experiences to develop organisational performance. 4. In order to facilitate the information, I will send a newsletter to every employee of the organisation working under my supervision. Along with that, meetings in the group will be arranged to avoid disruption to hospital operations and the project team will be selected on the basis of the performance of the employees (Watson, 2013). Employees with good performance and learning skills will be selected as a project team member. The team headed by me will be responsible for conducting personal interviews and training sessions for rest of the employees and contracted staffs. Finally, a feedback form will be provided to ensure that every member of the clinical department has gained the required information and knowledge to enhance the organisation's performance.Learning is a fundamental part of an organisation. It helps to enhance the knowledge of an employee and develops the personal skills to improve organisational performance. Hence, knowing the preferred learning style of the emplo yees is beneficial for a clinical manager to plan the training and development process (Jou Liu, 2012). The preference of the employees learning style improves the efficiency of the Training and Development program and provides the organisation with better talent resources. Furthermore, the knowledge of the employees preferences can be helpful in organising the operations and plan the activities accordingly. Hence, it is important for a clinical manager to observe and understand the preference of the employees learning style to avoid unwanted situations and improve organisations performance. 5. In order to deal with the situation of business writing skills, significant support can be provided to an employee. In the given case, despite attempting the business writing skills course, the performance of Tim has seemed to be unsatisfactory. Being the project team leader, I will provide Tim with some basic knowledge of professional writing to improve his standards of writing business emails and letters. Herein, Tim must be guided to understand the audience and the professional format of sending emails. In addition to that, the composition and style of the writing will be a crucial factor for any business communication (Firch, Campbell, Lindsay, Garner, 2010). Hence, by identifying the target audience, significant outline and flow of communication must be achieved within written communication. Along with that, Tim must be advised to utilise the Rhetorical Triangle method within the business emails to rectify the pitch of the message. Apart from that, the structure of the business emails and concept of grammar must be cleared to develop standard business writing skills. As professionals have less time to read a business email, key points must be presented in a structured way to impress the recipient (Lawrence, 2012). Moreover, proofing of the text will be effective to deliver an error free message to a business counterpart. In this way, Tim must be guided to improve the standards in business writing skills. 6. Feedbacks have played a major role in learning programme to improve the skills and knowledge of the subordinates. Though some of the training facilitators have utilised the feedback sheets to note down the positive comments, effective feedback sheets must include the negative comments as well. For personal and professional learning and development programmes, negative comments can show the training facilitators what areas of an employee must be improved. Through the identification negative comments of the feedback sheets, a trainer can improvise within the learning programme to add new learning facilities. For example, if an employee has lacked communication skills, more knowledge and learning resources must be provided to him to improve his communication methods (Magrath, 2016). In order to create an influence on the project team members, participants must be nominated to share their pros and cons. Along with that, advanced knowledge learning techniques must be introduced on the basis of feedback sheets comments. As a project team leader, individual assessment of the team members will be effective to understand the level of performance and issues of the subordinates. Accordingly, innovative learning measures and training should be provided to the team members to create a high level of confidence. References Firch, T., Campbell, A., Lindsay, D., Garner, D. (2010). On Developing The Writing Skills Course For Accounting Students.AJBE,3(4). https://dx.doi.org/10.19030/ajbe.v3i4.414 Jou, M. Liu, C. (2012). Application of semantic approaches and interactive virtual technology to improve teaching effectiveness.Interactive Learning Environments,20(5), 441-449. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2010.509632 Lawrence, C. (2012). Integrating Writing and Negotiation Skills.Business Communication Quarterly,65(2), 54-66. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/108056990206500205 Magrath, C. (2016). A Conceptual Framework for Facilitator Training to Expand Communication-Skills Training among Veterinary Practitioners.Journal Of Veterinary Medical Education,33(1), 108-110. https://dx.doi.org/10.3138/jvme.33.1.108 Monteserin, A. Amandi, A. (2013). A reinforcement learning approach to improve the argument selection effectiveness in argumentation-based negotiation.Expert Systems With Applications,40(6), 2182-2188. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2012.10.045 Robert, H. (2006).Webster's New World Robert's rules of order. New York: Hungry Minds. Snchez, J., Snchez, Y., Collado-Ruiz, D., Cebrin-Tarrasn, D. (2013). Knowledge Creating and Sharing Corporate Culture Framework.Procedia - Social And Behavioral Sciences,74, 388-397. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.03.029 Tuan, L. (2015). From corporate social responsibility, through entrepreneurial orientation, to knowledge sharing.The Learning Organization,22(2), 74-92. https://dx.doi.org/10.1108/tlo-09-2014-0052 Watson, I. (2013).Applying knowledge management. Amsterdam: Morgan Kaufmann.

The question of what defines tragedy has been an issue addressed by several different literary minds since the day of Aristotle Essay Example For Students

The question of what defines tragedy has been an issue addressed by several different literary minds since the day of Aristotle Essay The question of what defines tragedy has been an issue addressed by several different literary minds since the day of Aristotle, the first person to define tragedy. When Aristotle first defined tragedy he believed tragedy was something reserved for a person of noble stature. He said this person was eventually brought down by a tragic flaw, hence the term tragedy. Robert Silverberg agrees with Aristotles views on tragedy, but other authors dont accept Aristotles view so easily. Arthur Miller for example Believes any common man can be tragic, not just the nobility. And Richard Sewall, takes a view thats a bit different all together. We will write a custom essay on The question of what defines tragedy has been an issue addressed by several different literary minds since the day of Aristotle specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Aristotle was, as far as we know, the first person to define tragedy, and his definition has been forced down school kids throats year after year ever since. Aristotle said a hero was a person of noble stature that was good, but far from perfect. A tragic flaw in the persons character then led to misfortune that they didnt completely deserve, and eventually the characters complete downfall. Aristotle said that the character accepted his fate, and that it wasnt all bad. Aristotles view that the characters misfortune was not fully deserved, but that the character was responsible for their downfall seems slightly hypocritical, but who am I to criticize Aristotles opinions. Robert Silverberg describes a tragic character as, a man or sometimes a woman of great capability and attainment and ambition, who attempts great things and ultimately fails in his attempt, overreaching himself and loosing all because of some inherent fundamental flaw in his character Silverberg, 6. Robert Silverbergs opinion of tragedy completely coincides with Aristotle. He doesnt form any new opinions, and his lack of creativity and originality really makes his article Roger and John undeserving of mention in this paper. Of the four opinions reviewed here I like Arthur Millers the most. In Millers Tragedy and the Common Man Miller states, I believe that common people are as apt subjects for tragedy in its highest sense as monarchs are Miller, 16. While the others who have written their own definition have reserved tragedy for the noble, I like the fact that Miller doesnt feel that tragedy is something too good for the ordinary man. He defines tragic characters as people, who are ready to lay down their lives, if need be, to secure one thing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" their sense of personal dignity Miller, 16. Miller also believes that the character is not brought down by a tragic flaw of their own, but rather by a tragic flaw in the environment. Richard Sewall has a defined three-part definition of tragedy. In his essay The Tragic Form he states, ragedy makes certain distinguishable and characteristic affirmations, as well as denials aboutà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the cosmos and mans relation to it;à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the nature of the individual and his relation to himself;à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the individual in society Sewall, 166. Sewall says that in a tragedy good and evil are both seen as definite forces in the cosmos. Sewall says that the tragic  character is a paradox. Sewall states that the tragic character, is no child of God, but yetà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ feels himself more than a child of earth Sewall, 169. According to Sewall the tragic man is very defiant to authority. This defiance is a direct result of the tragic characters pride, and is not necessarily a bad thing, according to Sewall. Sewall belives the main thing that sets the tragic man apart from the other characters of a tragedy is suffering. Sewal says that the tragic man would define himself by the statement, I suffer, I will to suffer, I learn by suffering; therefore I am Sewall 170. And although tragic man is defined by suffering he does not seek out suffering or find it glorious. .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab , .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab .postImageUrl , .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab , .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab:hover , .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab:visited , .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab:active { border:0!important; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab:active , .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ua961bb35fb7a212557f442797755a5ab:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Tobias Wolff as a strange writer EssayLastly Sewall defines tragedy by the tragic character, and his interaction with society. Tragic man has the obvious options that most people pick when faced with a cituation but a tragic man picks a different coarse. Sewall says that tragic man, protests: he pits himself in some way against whatever, in the heavens above and in the earth beneath, seems to him to be wrong, oppressive, or personally thwarting Sewall, 172. Tragic man accepts that what he does is terrible, but he feels he must do it. The tragic characters actions must affect his environment including the people that surround him. Revealing some hidden truth. And in the end through his experiences the tragic character is raised above the other characters, and normal people. Of all the viewpoints taken on tragedy, and the tragic man, I value Millers view the most. I cant understand why Aristotle insists that the tragic man must be of noble standing. I appreciate the idea that Miller puts forth, that the common man can be tragic, and it is through his tragedy that, the character gains size, the tragic stature which is spuriously attached to the royal or the high-born in our minds Miller, 17. While the other authors statements could be interpreted to say that tragedy can apply to the common man the fact that Miller says it most outright makes me value his article the most.

Biography of Pompey the Great, Roman Statesman

Biography of Pompey the Great, Roman Statesman Pompey the Great (September 29, 106 BCE–September 28, 48  BCE) was one of the main Roman military leaders and statesmen during the final decades of the Roman Republic. He made a political alliance with Julius Caesar, married his daughter, and then fought against him for control of the empire. A skilled warrior, Pompey became known as Pompey the Great. Fast Facts: Pompey the Great Known For: Pompey was a Roman military commander and statesman who was part of the First Triumvirate with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Julius Caesar.Also Known As: Pompey, Gnaeus Pompeius MagnusBorn: September 29, 106 BCE in Picenum, Roman RepublicDied: September 28, 48 BCE in Pelusium, EgyptSpouse(s): Antistia  (m. 86-82 BCE), Aemilia Scaura  (m. 82-79 BCE), Mucia Tertia  (m. 79-61 BCE), Julia  (m. 59-54 BCE), Cornelia Metella  (m. 52-48 BCE)Children: Gnaeus Pompeius, Pompeia Magna, Sextus Pompeius Early Life Unlike Caesar, whose Roman heritage was long and illustrious, Pompey came from a non-Latin family in Picenum (in northern Italy), with money. His father,  Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, was a member of the Roman Senate. At 23, following in his fathers footsteps, Pompey entered the political scene by raising troops to help Roman general Sulla liberate Rome from the Marians. Marius and Sulla had been at odds ever since Marius took credit for a victory in Africa that his subordinate Sulla had engineered. Their struggles led to many Roman deaths and unthinkable violations of Roman law, such as bringing an army into the city itself. Pompey was a Sullan and a supporter of the conservative Optimates. A novus homo, or new man, Marius was Julius Caesars uncle and a supporter of the populist group known as the Populares. Pompey fought Marius men in Sicily and Africa. For his bravery in battle, he was given the title Pompey the Great (Pompeius Magnus). Sertorian War and Third Mithridatic War Civil war continued in Rome when Quintus Sertorius, one of the Populares, launched an attack against the Sullans in the Western Roman Empire. Pompey was sent to assist the Sullans  in the fighting, which lasted from 80 BCE to 72 BCE. Pompey was a skilled strategist; he used his forces to draw out the enemy and attack them when they least suspected it. In 71 BCE, he helped Roman leaders suppress the slave uprising led by Spartacus, and he later played a role in the defeat of the pirate menace. When he invaded the country of Pontus, in Asia Minor, in 66 BCE, Mithridates, who had long been a thorn in Romes side, fled to the Crimea where he arranged for his own death. This meant the Mithridatic wars were finally over; Pompey could take credit for another victory. On behalf of Rome, Pompey also took control of Syria in 64 BCE​ and captured Jerusalem. When he returned to Rome in 61 BCE, he held a triumphal celebration. The First Triumvirate Along with Marcus Licinius Crassus and Julius Caesar, Pompey formed what is known as the First Triumvirate, which became the dominating force in Roman politics. Together, these three rulers were able to seize power from some of the Optimates and resist the power of the Roman nobles in the Senate. Like Pompey, Caesar was a skilled and highly respected military leader; Crassus was the wealthiest man in the Roman Empire. The alliances between the three men, however, were personal, tenuous, and short-lived. Crassus was not happy that Pompey had taken credit for overcoming the Spartans, but with Caesar mediating, he agreed to the arrangement for political ends. When Pompeys wife Julia (Caesars daughter) died, one of the main links broke. Crassus, a less capable military leader than the other two, was killed in military action in Parthia. Civil War After the dissolution of the First Triumvirate, tensions began to escalate between Pompey and Caesar. Some Roman leaders, including those who had previously resisted the authority of Pompey and Caesar, decided to back Pompey in an election for consul, fearing that the failure to do so would create a power vacuum in Rome. Pompey then married Cornelia, the daughter of the Roman consul Metellus Scipio. For a time, Pompey controlled much of the Roman Empire while Caesar continued his campaigns abroad. In 51 BCE, Pompey made moves to relieve Caesar of his command. He promised to give up his own armies as well; however, some scholars claim that this was merely a ploy to hurt public opinion of Caesar, who no one expected would surrender his forces. Negotiations continued unsuccessfully for some time, with neither commander willing to make military concessions, and eventually the conflict turned into outright war. The Great Roman Civil War- also known as Caesars Civil War- lasted four years, from 49 to 45 BCE. It came to an end with Caesars decisive victory at the Battle of Munda. Death Pompey and Caesar first faced each other as enemy commanders after Caesar, defying orders from Rome, crossed the Rubicon. Caesar was the victor of the battle at Pharsalus in Greece, where he was outnumbered by Pompeys forces. After the defeat, Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was killed and his head cut off so that it could be sent to Caesar. Legacy Even though he turned against Caesar, Pompey was widely admired by his countrymen for his role in the conquest of various territories. He was especially admired by the nobles, and statues of him were placed in Rome as a tribute to his military and political accomplishments. His image was printed on silver coins in 40 BCE. Pompey has been depicted in a number of films and television series, including Julius Caesar, Rome, Ancient Rome: The Rise and Fall of an Empire, and Spartacus: War of the Damned. Sources Fields, Nic.  Warlords of Republican Rome: Caesar versus Pompey. Casemate, 2010.Gillespie, William Ernest.  Caesar, Cicero and Pompey: the Roman Civil War. 1963.Morrell, Kit.  Pompey, Cato, and the Governance of the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press, 2017.Seager, Robin.  Pompey, a Political Biography. University of California Press, 1979.

EVALUATING MINIMUM WAGE AS A LEGAL PRICE Research Paper - 1

EVALUATING MINIMUM WAGE AS A LEGAL PRICE - Research Paper Example This could sometimes result to negative economic impacts. This paper discusses the issue of evaluating minimum wage as a legal price. In the paper, we present the arguments behind this issue as well as some of its assessments. Increase in unemployment is a factor of minimum wage as a legal price. The rate of increase in unemployment depends with whether the minimum wage set is for skilled laborers or unskilled laborers. According to OECD (2011), job opportunities in the labor market for young people and unskilled workers are reduced by increase in minimum wages. However, the impact is different for the case of skilled workers. Evaluating minimum wages as a legal price could enhance understanding of its affect in both the case of skilled labor and the case of unskilled labor. This assists in making the right decisions on when to increase the wage and how to increase it. Increasing minimum wages could hinder economic development. By resulting to increase in the rate of unemployment, high minimum wage would lower economic development since unemployed people will be having little or no contributions to the economy. However, according to Mankiw (2011), advocates of minimum wage show that it results to increase in the earnings of poor workers. This could lower poverty levels in a country thus resulting to an economic development. Therefore, evaluating minimum wage as a legal price is necessary to determine the positive effects of increasing it as well as its negative effects. A raise in minimum wage as a legal price result to an improved standard of living. Increase in minimum wage increase the amount earned by a worker for doing the same job. However, this can only happen with low-earning jobs since the employee lives within the maximum he can earn. For highly paying job, it can have little or no effect. Moreover, Folsom & Boulware (2009) shows that increasing minimum wage cannot improve the standards of living since the people working at minimum wage are not the

McDonalds Cost Structures Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

McDonalds Cost Structures - Assignment Example The franchises have to pay their own occupancy costs which consist of rent, property taxes, insurance and maintenance costs. Certain corporate general and administrative expenses are fixed too which comprise of office support costs in areas of training, legal, supply chain, finance, information technology and human resources. Variable costs which vary with the level of sales include a major chunk of food and labor costs. Sales staff and countermen whose salaries are based on the number of customers they serve are also variable costs for the company. Also, packaging costs, the paper material, employee benefits, selling and general expenses are variable charges. Certain corporate general costs are variable such as training and restaurant operations. As for the fixed costs, the factors that affect them are mostly the market changes. McDonald's needs to spend more on advertising and promotion when they see that market competition is getting fiercer and bitter. Moreover, in order to retain the higher level experienced staff, they need to raise the salaries of their staff and hence payrolls and compensation of management level employees increase. However, in times of recession like the major financial crisis, all fixed costs also dwindled down. The royalty charges or franchise fee is mainly fixed at a certain percentage after a 25% down payment initially unless the franchisor wants to alter the fixed rate for some reason. The variable costs are more directly responsive to changes in the level of sales. The main factor affecting the variable costs is the demand and the number of sales that McDonald's has. The more people want to eat McDonald's, the higher will be the food supplies costs, the packaging and paper costs, the more the number of counter employees to serve the customers, the higher the selling expenses and other general expenses.

Existing relationship between attitudes and motivations of high achieving students to their academic success in science at captain albert aguilar national high school Essay Example for Free

Existing relationship between attitudes and motivations of high achieving students to their academic success in science at captain albert aguilar national high school Essay This study primarily identified the different attitudes and motivations of high achieving students of Captain Albert Aguilar National High School. Specifically, this research identified (1) the significance of attitudes and motivations to students specially those have high level of achievement to their academic success in science and the importance f the study to the school, teachers and students, (2) the percentage of the students that have high interest towards science and those have low interest to learn science, (3) the relationship between the attitudes and motivations of high achieving students to their academic success in science while engage in a public high school. To execute this, the researchers applied Descriptive Research which falls under the category of a Non-experimental design. A total of 44 respondents were chosen with the use of Purposive Sampling as guided by the qualifications set. Self-Recording/Reporting Approach was used to collect the data with the utilization of a questionnaire. To describe and summarized the data, Inferential Statistics was used. The weighed mean was computed to utilize for the Pearson Product-Moment correlation to examine the relationship between the attitudes and motivations of high achieving students and their academic success in science. FINDINGS: 1) Is there an existing relationship between student’s attitudes and academic success? By using the Pearson product moment correlation, the researchers found out that theres an existing significant relationship between the 2 variables. It has a high correlation shows that students attitudes greatly affect the academically status of the student. (Respondents dont find science as an interesting subject, thats why their academic success can have an average grade of 85-88) 2) Is there an existing relationship between students motivation and their academic success in science? An average or marked relationship had identified the 2 variables in this research. It has a moderate correlation that shows students are motivated enough and v have a good academic success. 3) What are the significances of the researchers study?The significant of the researchers study is to widen student’s intelligence quotient with the cooperation of the community, school, and teaching profession and to measure the thinking ability of a high school students that stands as a basic building blocks of success without successfully passing individual exams. CONCLUSION: The researcher, conclude that there is an existing relationship between students attitudes motivations to their academic success in science. There are also factors that can affect academic performance. These factors might be an advantage or disadvantage and might be classified as learning environment, school facilities, teachers teaching method the attitude and motivation of the student toward the subject as well. Based on the study, the students dont find science as an interesting subject but they can be motivated. Thus, the hypothesis is rejected since it was ascertained in the study that there is a significant relationship between student’s attitude and their academic success. RECOMMENDATION: It is therefore recommended that even if the school facilities are perceived as adequately available and accessible for use, they should improve further for maximumutilization and more effective science instruction. Furthermore, the students should be given hands-on experiencesin the subject and may enhance their understanding on the subject.The school should be design a teacher development program that would maximize the teachers capabilities and enhance their effectiveness in teaching subject which may focus on the content of the subject. The teachers should be sent to seminars in the divisional, regional levels so that they could become better more effective in teaching science, thereby raising the student’s performance in the subject. It is also manner of satisfying their professional needs and for personal enrichment. Moreover, teachers should integrate values in every lesson as part of value formation. The teachers should give emphasis on creative approach in learning since this is where the students could expressed themselves in terms of creativity critical mindedness relative to the subject matter. The school heads should intensify the monitoring on the implementation of the DepEds programs, designed to improve the students performance. The students should be encouraged to develop a good study habits so that they could also perform better in the subject. Researchers also recommend the overviews of the Tools for Teaching by Barbara Gross Davis. Give frequent, early, positive feedback that supports students beliefs that they can do well. Ensure opportunities for students success by assigning tasks that are neither too easy nor too difficult. Help students find personal meaning and value in the material. Create an atmosphere that is open and positive. Help students feel that they are valued members of learning community. (Jossey-Bass Publishers:San Francisco, 1993)

Great Gatsby by Scott Fitzgerald Essay -- Great Gatsby Scott Fitzgeral

Great Gatsby by Scott Fitzgerald The 1920s is the decade in American history known as the â€Å"roaring twenties.† Scott Fitzgerald’s novel The Great Gatsby is a reflection of life in the 1920s. Booming parties, prominence, fresh fashion trends, and the excess of alcohol are all aspects of life in the â€Å"roaring twenties.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The booming parties in Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby reflect life in America during the 1920s. Gatsby displays his prominent fortune by throwing grand parties. From next door, Nick Carraway witnesses the scene of Gatsby’s fabulous summer parties: There was music from my neighbor’s house through the summer nights. In his blue gardens men and women came and went like moths among the whisperings of champagne and the stars†¦On week-ends his Rolls-Royce became an omnibus, bearing parties to and from the city, between nine in the morning and long past midnight, while his station wagon scampered like a brisk yellow bug to meet all the trains (Fitzgerald 43). Gatsby’s house illuminates, the jazz music blares for the entire town to hear, the bubbly is served, and the guests dance until one A.M. The parties are â€Å"roaring.† Gatsby’s parties display the way Americans socialized and the lifestyle they lived during the 1920s when â€Å"Americans danced to the decades joyous music at a frantic and accelerating pace†¦Americans began to improvise leisure time activities that had no purpose other than having fun. People roared through the decade intent on enjoying every exciting moment of it†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Nash 370). Life in the twenties consisted of fun, fun, and fun. Americans partied like there was no tomorrow. Gatsby’s parties reflect the way society partied in the 1920s. Americans threw expensive never-ending galas. One result from the grand parties and riches was the gain in fame.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prominence in The Great Gatsby is imperative for life in Long Island and also reflects 1920s America. Gatsby throws magnificent parties, boasts about his car, and flaunts his costly materials. Gatsby’s materials and riches result in his vast popularity. During one of Gatsby’s parties, Nick becomes intrigued when he overhears a group gossiping about Gatsby. The gossip â€Å"was a testimony to the romantic speculation he inspired that there were whispers about him from those who had found little that it was necessary to whisper about in this world†(Fitzgerald 48). Gatsby’s fo... ...gerald 55). Nick’s perspective on the evening has changed in an instant. In 1920s America, alcohol was just as important as it is in the novel The Great Gatsby. In America everyone was rebelling to Prohibition. Despite the law, â€Å"women who had not been allowed to drink in saloons went to the new speakeasies, where men and women gulped down Prohibition’s new drink, the cocktail†(Nash 398). Americans drank liquor when they and where they could. The consumption of alcohol in the 1920s was significant just as it was in The Great Gatsby. The amount of alcohol served at Gatsby’s parties and in general is an illustration of the overindulgence of alcohol during the 1920s. The drinking, the parties, the rich and famous, and the fashion elite make up not only Gatsby’s life but the 1920s as well.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lavish parties, prominence, stylish clothing, and the surplus of alcohol are aspects that frame 1920s America. The Great Gatsby written by F. Scott Fitzgerald is a direct reflection of the lives of American during the time. American history will always know the 1920s as the â€Å"roaring twenties† due to the spontaneity and rebellion that existed. It is no reason the decade is known as â€Å"roaring.†

Fresh Food vs Canned Food Essay

Eating is an activity that we as humans do at least two times a day. We live in a world where the variety of food is immense, and we are responsible for what we eat. We decide what we are about to eat and how it will affect our bodies. However, each food differs from one to another. For example are the fresh food and the canned food. Fresh foods and canned foods are two kinds of different types of food that have their own benefits and disadvantages. The most notable difference between these two kinds of foods is their flavor. Fresh food have great flavor because they keep their natural conditions. Canned foods however, lack a lot of its flavor characteristic because there are some other chemical products added to the natural foods. Comparing both types of foods we can notice another difference. That is the health factor that affects our bodies. While the fresh food keep their original freshness and flavor, canned foods lose some of the original fresh food nutrients when stored, and also it has chemical ingredient when consumed too much will become toxin in our bodies. Another difference between these two types of food is the cost. Canned foods are much more expensive than the fresh foods. In contrast to the cost, canned foods are easier to find, they also require less work to prepare than fresh food. As we can see there are three main differences between the fresh foods and the canned foods. However, the main reason we chose our foods lies on our personal choice, based on time each person has, the money and the importance we give to our nutrition and health. Therefore it is important that you consider your possibilities and choose the best type of food for your convenience and life style.

Reflective Report for a Group Presentation

[pic] Reflective Report Introduction After finishing the presentation and looking back on the effort we've made as a 4-member team, I can clearly see that we had a lot of strengths but also a lot of weaknesses as a team. The result of what we have achieved is that our presentation was one of the best. My experience at the University of Greenwich so far I've been a student in University of Greenwich since October, and I can honestly say that I am more than pleased with the lessons I've attended. The majority of the teachers are highly educated, so that gives us the opportunity to learn more things through the experience they have and as Albert Einstein said †The only source of knowledge is experience†. I think since studying at the University of Greenwich of all my expectations have been met through the material our teachers provide us. Generally, the high standard of all the courses makes me try more and more and gives me motivation, forgetting the difficulties I face. I feel very comfortable being with my other colleagues and since I am a student of the University I became very social and the good knowledge of the English language gives me an advantage that other students don't have. The advantage of working as a group Thinking back on the experience of our group exercise I can hopefully say that I met my expectations fair enough. Unfortunately, we faced a problem with the presentation so we couldn't show some pictures of what we were describing. Working with the other 3 colleagues, taught me cooperation with other people, something that all of us will definitely meet through our ‘’working life’’. It was very beneficial to work as a team because as Ken Blanchard said †None of us is as smart as all of us†. That means that one mind is better than one and the teamwork provides more ideas that an individual person. So, the result of our presentation came from the feedback we received from the other colleagues, who were very satisfied with our work. A problem we had as a team was that it was sometimes difficult to arrange the time we could meet to finish the presentation. That thing was caused by the different schedules everyone had, which is acceptable. Conclusion Ending my reflective report, it is clear that working with other colleagues, makes me improve my working skills as a result of knowing the difficulties I will probably face in a real working environment. It is known that this exercise will also help me during the first year, since i would have more experience than before in other presentations more difficult than this one. References 1) †The only source of knowledge is experience. † Albert Einstein / March 14th 1879 – April 18th 1955 / theoretical physicist 2) †None of us is as smart as all of us. † Ken Blanchard / born May 6th 1939 / American author and management expert

How Mild Intellectual Disability Is Defined

How Mild Intellectual Disability Is Defined Editors note: Since this article was originally written, mental retardation as a diagnosis has been replaced with an intellectual or cognitive disability.   Since the term retard made its way into the lexicon of the schoolyard bully, retardation has also become offensive. Retardation did remain as part of the diagnostic vocabulary until the publication of the DSM V. What Is Mild Intellectual Disability (MID), Also Referred to as Mild Mental Retardation? Many of the characteristics of MID correspond to those of Learning Disabilities. The intellectual development will be slow, however, MID students have the potential to learn within the regular classroom given appropriate modifications and/or accommodations. Some MID students will require greater support and/or withdrawal than others will. MID students, like all students, demonstrate their own strengths and weaknesses. Depending on the educational jurisdiction, criteria for MID will often state that the child is functioning approximately 2-4 years behind or 2-3 standard deviations below the norm or have an IQ under 70-75. An intellectual disability may vary from mild to profound. How Are MID Students Identified? Depending on the education jurisdiction, testing for MID will vary. Generally, a combination of assessment methods is used to identify mild intellectual disabilities. Methods may or may not include IQ scores or percentiles, adaptive skills cognitive tests in various areas, skills-based assessments, and levels of academic achievement. Some jurisdictions will not use the term MID but will use mild mental retardation. (see note above.) Academic Implications of MID Students with MID may demonstrate some, all or a combination of the following characteristics: 2 to 4 years behind in cognitive development which could include math, language, short attention spans, memory difficulties and delays in speech development.Social relationships are often impacted. The MID child may exhibit behavior problems, be immature, display some obsessive/compulsive behaviors and lack the understanding of verbal/nonverbal clues and will often have difficulty following rules and routines.Adaptive skills, everyday skills for functioning, may be compromised. These children may be clumsy, use simple language with short sentences, have minimal organization skills and will need reminders about hygiene, such as washing hands, brushing teeth (life skills). etc.Weak confidence is often demonstrated by MID students. These students are easily frustrated and require opportunities to improve self-esteem. Lots of support will be needed to ensure they try new things and take risks in learning.Concrete to abstract thought is often missing or significantly delayed. This include s the lacking ability to understand the difference between figurative and literal language. Best Practices Use simple, short, uncomplicated sentences to ensure maximum understanding. Repeat instructions or directions frequently and ask the student if further clarification is necessary.Keep distractions and transitions to a minimum.Teach specific skills whenever necessary.Provide an encouraging, supportive learning environment that will capitalize on student success and self-esteem.Use appropriate program interventions in all areas where necessary to maximize success.Use alternative instructional strategies and alternative assessment methods.Help the MID student develop appropriate  social skills to support friend and peer relationships.Teach organizational skills.Use behavior contracts, and reinforce positive behavior if necessary.Ensure that your routines and rules are consistent. Keep conversations as normal as possible to maximize inclusion with peers. Teach the difference between literal/figurative language.Be patient! Assist with coping strategies.

Cyber security is said to be a big issue for business costing not only Essay

Cyber security is said to be a big issue for business costing not only lost revenue but damaged reputations and lost custom. Yo - Essay Example Any cyber security program strives to ensure these four fundamental cyber security components. Information confidentiality enables the organization’s sensitive information to be a secret so that it does not fall into the hands of unauthorized persons for example the competitors. Information integrity ensures that the data that is stored is accurate and serves the purpose and is always up to date. Data availability enables information to be present any time the organization required. This is by preventing any vulnerability for example denial of service. This can give the competitor firm an avenue of bringing down the company by capitalizing on the weakness of the other company and at the same time enhancing its strength. The investigation was conducted by administering questionnaire to cyber security experts of various organizations. Interviews were also conducted with CISO of both business and non profit organizations. In addition, a thorough review of the existing literature on cyber threats and cyber security was conducted. Table of Contents Cyber security is said to be a big issue for business costing not only lost revenue but damaged reputations and lost custom. Your task is to investigate the need for cyber security and analyze the threats from which it protects business. ... A cyber security is a basis or the foundation of organization’s security for its information assets. Cyber attacks are a deliberate or unintentional unauthorized task, which cannot be avoided or is in avoidable that that is capable of causing a vagary on the cyberspace resources. The scope of cyber attack is expands from hardware, software, data that is stored, data in transit, people, documents and other hardware needed like printer cartridges. Findings and Analysis The organization information system is a critical asset that calls for utmost security. For instance, employee’s personal identification information, development plan and financial data are very critical to an organization. This information can fall into two broad categories. There are information that are secured or protected by the state and federal law and those that are based on contractual obligation (Jue 2012). The deliberate or accidental exposure of this information to illegal personnel can be detri mental to the university. The different types of attack that are detriment to cyber security are Threats targeting infrastructure (Invalidated input) Problem and situation The most prevalent threat to client computers is Keylogging and spyware. This is a malware that is built to illegally obtain, track and block the right of a user to get access to the system. An example of this attack is where someone or an individual tries to log on to the system or a website like an email account but the system or the site fails to authenticate the user. This threat is related to backdoor attack command. These are weapons that give remote access that are created to divert the functionality of the system.

Measuring the reactions of the enzymes catecholase in different levels Lab Report

Measuring the reactions of the enzymes catecholase in different levels of pH in different tempereture - Lab Report Example Temperature rise of about 10oC normally doubles or triples the rate of enzymatic reactions. However beyond the optimum temperature the enzyme activity decreases. If catecholase activity is minimally affected at different temperatures and pH then it can be hypothesized that it has a large range of optimal activity. The aim of this experiment was to test the effect of temperature and pH on the enzymatic activity of catecholase. The effect of catecholase enyme at different temperatures, 0 and 37oC were tested at different levels of pH 2, 4, 7 and 12. Three tubes for each pH were set up and labelled A, B and C. To three tubes in each pH 3ml of the pH solution was added and 2ml of banana extract (substrate). To two tubes 1ml of the enzyme (potato extract) was added while the third tube the enzyme was not added and acted as the control. The test tubes were then shaken and put in the appropriate temperature and the optical density measured after three minutes. The reaction rate was the highest at all temperatures at pH 7. At room temperature the reaction rate was the highest in the tube without the enzyme. pH 4 and 12 had the lowest reaction rates at all temperatures. The reaction rates were highest between 0oC and room temperature in the presence of catecholase and lowest at 0oC without the enzyme. Catechol oxidase (catecholase) is a polyphenol oxidase enzyme present in many plants (Aniszewski et al. 2008). It is responsible for catalysing the reaction between oxygen and hydroxylated benzenes leading to the production of quinines and water. The enzyme mediated reaction rate was the highest at physiological pH and at temperatures between zero and room temperature. This shows that the enzyme has a large range of optimal temperatures. However, it has a narrow range of optimal pH. The narrow pH range during which catecholase activity was the highest is due to the effect of pH on the redox

Earth's Magnetic Pole Reversals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Earth's Magnetic Pole Reversals - Essay Example â€Å"In 2005, the North Magnetic Pole (NMP) was about 810 km (503 miles) from the Geographic North Pole. The NMP was in the  Arctic Ocean  north of Canada. The South Magnetic Pole (SMP) was about 2,826 km (1,756 miles) from the Geographic South Pole. The SMP was off the coast of  Antarctica  in the direction of Australia† (Russel). The presence of earth’s magnetic field can be explained through the dynamo effect. Deep inside the earth’s core is a solid iron ball with temperatures reaching as high as that on the sun. This inner core is surrounded by a molten mass of iron, called the outer core. The molten mass of iron circulates relative to the motion of the earth. Convection currents within this region generate our planet’s magnetism (Phillip). Over years, many scientists have proven that the earth’s magnetic field is changing. James Ross located the pole for the first time in 1831 after an exhausting journey during which his ship got stuck. No one retrieved it until four years and when they did, they noticed that the pole had shifted from its original position, even though by a small amount. The next observation occurred in 1904 when Ronal Amundsen found the pole again and discovered that it had moved almost fifty kilometers since the days of Ross. This movement of the magnetic poles has hastened in the recent past. â€Å"The pole kept going during the 20th century, north at an average speed of 10 km per year, lately accelerating to 40 km per year (Phillip). This sparked interest of researchers to study this phenomenon in detail. It has been discovered that iron and other heavy metals, present inside molten lave, align themselves in the direction of the external magnetic field when solidifying to form hardened rock. By studying the various layers of these rocks, scientists have measured the historical directions of the Earth’s magnetic field and concluded that the Earth’s poles

Happiness Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Happiness Research - Essay Example Based on the appraisal-based theory of happiness, Myers and Diener maintain that one's personality traits, the characteristics of one's social milieu etc can determine one's happiness. Whereas a person's age, sex, race, and income etc cannot determine factors of happiness, "better clues come from knowing a person's traits, whether the person enjoys a supportive network of close relationships, whether the person's culture offers positive interpretations for most daily events, whether the person is engaged by work and leisure, and whether the person has a faith that entails social support, purpose, and hope." (Myers and Diener, 1995, p 17). In a reflective exploration of the arguments put forward by Myers and Diener, it becomes lucid that family support and family relations are two important factors that contribute to happiness or the subjective well-being of an individual. In their article, Myers and Diener offer crucial premises concerning the happiness or satisfaction with life and they suggest that personality traits, supportive network of close relationships, culture, work and leisure, social support, purpose, and hope etc can determine one's happiness. It is fundamental to investigate the premise by the authors that people who have strong family relations are happy and healthy. ... Thus, in their important study titled "Family Support, Family Income, and Happiness: A 10-Year Perspective", North, Holahan, Moos, and Cronkite examined the role of income and social support in predicting coexisting happiness and change in happiness and the conclusions of their study support the premise of Myers and Diener that people who have strong family relations are happy and healthy. "Income had a small, positive impact on happiness, which diminished as income increased. In contrast, family social support, measured by 3 subscales, Cohesion, Expressiveness, and Conflict, showed a substantial, positive association with concurrent happiness, even after controlling for income." (North, Holahan, Moos, and Cronkite, 2008, p. 475). Therefore, it is essential to realize that family social support has a great influence on the happiness of an individual, as against income, and financial stability. The family support and family relations are among the most fundamental elements determining the well being of an individual and the organization of family life can influence the individual's happiness. Based on literature review on the topic, Myers and Diener maintain that the impoverished social connections in the ever more individualistic modern societies hinder happiness and well being of individuals. "Individualistic societies offer personal control, harmony between the inner and outer person, and opportunity to express one's feelings and talents, though with the risks of a less embedded, more detached self." (Myers and Diener, 1995, pp 14-15). The social support system as well as family support and relations can greatly help one in realizing happiness. The value

Investigation of Tunisian Geography Teachers

Investigation of Tunisian Geography Teachers Introduction The purpose of this study was to investigate some Tunisian geography teachers/researchers reading of research articles (RA) in English in their field, in particular their use of metadiscourse and the factors that might affect this use. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods addressed the purposes of this study. Two major reasons have motivated the choice of this topic: theoretical and contextual. Theoretical Justifications Of The Study A good number of studies have highlighted the facilitative role that metadiscourse plays in reading comprehension (e.g. Camiciottoli, 2003). Metadiscourse is defined, in the present study, as â€Å"self-reflective linguistic material referring to the evolving text and to the writer and to the imagined reader of that text (Hyland and Tse, 2004, p. 156). In defining reading comprehension, I adopted the componential interactive approach (e.g. Grabe, 2008). According to this approach, readers are active participants who actively take knowledge, connect it to previously assimilated knowledge and make it theirs by constructing their own interpretation. They develop, modify and even reflect on all or some of the ideas displayed in the text. Research has shown that second language (SL) and foreign language (FL) reading comprehension process is highly complex (Grabe, 2008; Koda, 2007; Sheng, 2000). Indeed, a wide range of variables intervene in the process: linguistic, metalinguistic, cognitive, metacognitive, social and psychological (Koda, 2005; Pressley, 2006; Rapp et al., 2007). Researchers reported the difficulty to clearly understand the exact degree of the contribution of each variable to the final product. All aspects of the reader variables interact with one another and interact with textual and contextual factors (e.g. Dhieb-Henia, 2003). Different models have been proposed in the literature in order to take account of these factors (the Top-down approach, the Bottom-up approach, the Interactive approach) (Grabe, 2008). Also, there has been a debate among SL reading researchers about whether SL reading is a language problem or a reading problem (Alderson, 1984, Bernhardt and Kamil, 1995; Grabe, 1991; Khaldieh, 2001). Some researchers contended that some SL linguistic knowledge threshold was necessary in order to get first language (L1) reading knowledge to engage and first language reading strategies to transfer (Cummins (1979) threshold level of language proficiency and Clarkes (1978) linguistic ceiling). Others argued that reading difficulties in a SL can be caused by a deficient reading ability in general, or can be caused by a failing transfer of L1 reading ability to an FL (the linguistic interdependence hypothesis, or alternatively called the common underlying principle (Bernhardt Kamil, 1995). Reading in English for Academic purposes (EAP) is still a more complex process (Flowerdew and Peacock, 2001). EAP is concerned with the English required for specific academic purpose such as studying at universities and colleges, doing research or publishing papers. Based on the literature, the present study views EAP reading as the ability to read an EAP discourse as the product of a particular disciplinary culture (e.g., Swales, 2004). Daoud (1991, p. 6), for instance, recommended that non-native readers (of EAP) should acquire â€Å"those abilities which would allow them to recognize the existence of certain types of implicit presuppositional rhetorical information, abilities that the experienced native reader possesses. Studies in Contrastive Rhetoric (CR) have demonstrated that texts are shaped by their cultural origins even if they participate in international discourses such as those of the science disciplines (Burgess, 2002; Connor, 2004; Kaplan, 1966, 1987). Mauranen (1993) asserted that â€Å"science, or more widely, academic research, does not exist outside writing, and so we cannot represent it, or realize it, without being influenced by the variation in the writing cultures that carry it† (p. 4). This suggests that the belief that scientific academic discourses merely transmit natural facts is debatable. Hyland (2005) argued that discourses are never neutral but always engaged in that they realize the interests, the positions, the perspectives and the values of those who enact them (p. 4). The RA, for instance, is a discourse written by a particular writer belonging to a particular scientific discourse community in the purpose of engaging an audience and persuading them of his/her findings (Adel, 2006; Hyland, 2005; Martin, 2004). Webber (1994) explained â€Å"scientists are writers who fight for their ideas to be accepted, recognized, and to be competitive and get their work published† (p. 257). The tendency of scientific writers to choose a particular range of rhetorical devices, might reveal their attempts to establish interpersonal relations, to interact with their audience and to express personal attitudes about the content of their texts and about their audience( s). Metadiscourse is the linguistic system that enables writers to achieve these goals (Adel, 2006; Hyland, 2004; 2005; Martin, 2004). It represents some internal stylistic map whereby an external reality is created and conveyed. Metadiscourse also helps to perceive discourse as a social action between two parties, author(s) and audience, researchers and scientific communities; in other words, writers and readers are viewed as social agents and texts as a social enterprise in which writers do not only want their messages to be understood (an illocutionary effect), but also to be accepted (a perlocutionary effect) (Hyland, 2005). Hyland (2001, p. 550) argues â€Å"a central aspect of the writer-reader dialogue involves careful interpersonal negotiations in which writers seek to balance claims for the significance, originality, and truth of their work against the convictions of their readers†. The readers ability to construct the writer-intended meaning, via metadiscourse, is one ma jor key to a successful comprehension. This idea of interaction was grounded in Hallidays (1985) metafunctional theory of language. Halliday (1985) argued that language is a system of meanings and maintains that the writer needs to operate at three levels: the ideational, the textual and the interpersonal. On the ideational plane, the writer supplies information about the subject of the text and expands propositional content, on the interactive plane, he/she does not add propositional material, but helps readers organize, classify, interpret, evaluate, and react to such material. Many researchers have attempted to investigate the contributions of metadiscourse to language teaching. However, most of the literature on metadiscourse has focused on the writing skill. The immense part of these studies has compared writers use of metadiscourse across cultures and disciplines (Dahl, 2004; Hyland TLe, 2004; Ifantidou, 2005; Lee, 2002; Perez Macia, 2002; Steffensen Cheng, 1996). Only a few studies have examined the role that this crucial part of discourse plays in reading comprehension skill. There is still an opaque picture of the correlation between the recognition of metadiscourse markers and reading comprehension performance. Indeed, a good number of the studies conducted with native readers of English has yielded inconclusive results (e.g., Crismore and Vande Kopple, 1997; OKeefe, 1988). While some researchers demonstrated the positive role of metadiscourse (e.g. Vande Kopple, 2002), other researchers concluded that metadiscourse did not have larger effects in their studies (e.g., Crismore, 1989). Research on the interaction between SL reading and metadiscourse seems to be still in its infancy. The little research carried out has demonstrated the complexity of the entreprise (Camiciottoli, 2003; Daoud, 1991; Dhieb-Henia, 2003; Mustapha and Premalatha, 2001). In fact, research has shown that many factors could intervene in the reading process and hamper EAP readers from using metadiscourse, namely language proficiency, prior disciplinary knowledge and metacognitive strategies (e.g., Camiciottoli, 2003; Daoud, 1991; Dhieb-Henia, 2003). Language proficiency refers to the ability to understand technical and semi-technical language used by a particular academic discourse community. Metacognition is the awareness readers have of their own mental processes and the subsequent ability to monitor, regulate, and direct themselves to a desired end. Prior knowledge includes knowledge of the rhetorical conventions of the genre and the subject discipline. It has been also interesting to note that no study has investigated SL experts use of metadiscourse when reading materials in their fields. Local Justifications Of The Study Reading RAs is a prerequisite for doing research, updating ones knowledge and ultimately publishing RAs. Publication is not optional or a matter of personal choice in Tunisia. The last reform of postgraduate studies has given prior importance to the number of published RAs (Labbassi, 2000). Therefore, researchers who would like to become visible in the international scientific community, have to read and write RAs in English, the international Lingua Frinca in the age of electronic communication. In fact, in Tunisia there are few specialised local journals. Labassi (2008, p. 4120 aptly put â€Å"reading and writing English have become unavoidable conditions for joining academic communities in almost all disciplines†. The Tunisian geographical society seems to be eager to integrate into the international geographic community. Indeed, the Tunisian Geographers Association, in collaboration with the International Geographical Union (IGU), managed to organise the 31st International Geographical Congress (IGC) in the country in 2008. Tunisia was the first Arab and African country to host the biggest appointment for geographers all over the world. Adding to that, there is a clear political intention to enhance English status in Tunisia. English is gaining ground over French, which has been until recently the principal language of modernity, as well as the dominant economic language. (Champagne, 2007; Labassi, 2009a, b; Tossa, 1995). The Tunisian government is aiming at creating an English-speaking workforce to enhance the prospects for successful integration into the global economy. Under the New Maitrise reform of 1998, English was introduced in the curriculum of all undergraduate students from all disciplines (Labassi, 2009 a). What is ironical, however, is that â€Å"potential researchers and professionals who have to read a literature, which is up to 90% in some disciplines in English, are not offered courses in English† (Labassi, 2009 a, p. 249). However, while the literature abounds with arguments for and against the role that metadiscourse plays in reading comprehension, little research has been conducted to assess the reading practices of the Tunisian geography society.Therefore, the present research aims to fill in this gap and gain more insight into the reading practices of some Tunisian university teachers/researchers of geography; in particular it aims to assess the extent they use metadiscourse to facilitate their comprehension of RAs in English in their field and to find out about the variables that may hinder this use. Research Objectives The main aims of the present research are three-fold: (1) to determine to what extent Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when reading research articles in English in their fields, (2) to assess whether this use facilitates their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields, (3) to find to what extent this use is related to the participants proficiency in English, to text familiarity (defined in the present study in terms of both content and formal knowledge) and to their use of metacognitive reading strategies. Research Questions The present study addresses the following questions: 1. To what extent do Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when reading research articles in English in their fields? 2. To what extent does this use relate to their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields? 3. To what extent do their proficiency in English, discipline-related knowledge (content and genre) and metacognitive reading strategies contribute to their use of metadiscourse markers and comprehension of research articles in English in their fields? Significance Of The Study This study explored the use of metadiscourse by some Tunisian geography faculty when reading research articles in English in their disciplines. Theoretically, findings from the study can help clarify the role metadiscourse plays in SL reading comprehension. The research into metadiscourse markers is useful in itself. It helps us have an insight into how writers interact with their readers to establish a reader-friendly atmosphere and to persuade them of their findings. Such information can add to our understanding of factors contributing to language pedagogy, in particular to the teaching of reading comprehension skill. At the practical level, information from this study can be useful for making decisions about organizing training sessions to university teachers/researchers to introduce them to the rhetorical conventions of academic genres, namely the research article and to the rhetorical importance of metadiscourse. They should be made aware of the facilitative role of metadiscourse markers when reading academic materials in English. Metadiscourse markers should be taught explicitly in EAP reading comprehension classes as a means to enhance the researchers reading comprehension ability. Thesis Organisation This thesis consists of six chapters. The first chapter describes the background of the research and the context in which the research was conducted. The second chapter comprises two sections: the first is a review of research into the nature of foreign language reading. The second section provides a descriptive account of what metadiscourse is, then explores the studies conducted on the effects of metadiscourse, reviews a few taxonomies on metadiscourse and ends with a description of the taxonomy to be adopted in the present study. Research questions are presented after the discussions of these reviews. Chapter three concerns the methodological decisions taken for this research. It describes how the participants were selected, how the material and instruments were piloted, and which materials and instruments were finally used. It provides as well an account of how the main study was conducted and how the data were analysed. Chapter four reports the findings of the present study. Cha pter five discusses the key findings from this study and highlights their implications for the area of EAP. The contributions and limitations of this research and suggestions for future research are presented in chapter six. Literature Review The previous chapter introduced the context for this research. This chapter clarifies the two central variables underlying the present study, namely EAP reading comprehension and metadiscourse use. It can be divided into three parts. In the first part, I will focus on the reading variable. Since foreign language reading modeling has been strongly influenced by first language reading theories, I will first discuss four different approaches to reading in a first language, I will then explain how they have been adopted in and adapted for a foreign language reading context. Next, I will elaborate on theoretical concepts particular to reading in English for academic purposes (being the focus of the present study) and I will draw attention to studies that investigated the interaction between reading in English for Academic purposes and language proficiency, background knowledge and reading strategies. This part aims at underscoring the complexity of the EAP reading process and the need to account for the many factors intervening in it. In the second part, I will introduce the second variable of the present study, metadiscouse. I will first try to define the concept and then provide an overview of its main assumptions and classifications to highlight the confusion surrounding the term and emphasize its benefits to EAP readers, and last I will detail Hylands (2005) taxonomy, the theoretical framework within which the present study is conducted. In the last part I will review some empirical studies that have investigated the interaction between metadiscourse and EAP reading. This part will also draw attention to the scarcity of research in this area. Reading Comprehension Understanding the processes involved in reading comprehension is a prerequisite to select reliable and valid research instruments. Alderson (2000) stated â€Å"if we are not able to define what we mean by the ‘ability to read, it will be difficult to devise means of assessing such abilities† (p. 49). Likewise, Hogan (2004, p. 1) maintained The real question we are asking when we look at assessing reading is: What distinguishes a good reader from a poor reader? Implicit in this question is an even more fundamental question: What are we doing when we read?† Assessment is an attempt to answer the first question, but if we cannot at least try to answer the second, we do not know what we are assessing, and any measure or description of reading proficiency we suggest is meaningless. Thus, in what follows I will first attempt to define the construct of reading comprehension, and then present a number of models that provide a framework for organizing and explaining the nature of reading comprehension. I will give due prominence, however, to the issues specific to reading in EAP dwelling upon the complex cognitive processes that EAP readers go through when they read. I will try to show how certain variables such as linguistic proficiency, background knowledge and reading strategies interact with reading comprehension process. Definition Of The Construct Of Reading Comprehension Reading comprehension has often been a subject of controversy among teachers and scholars. Kintsch (1998, p. 2) stated â€Å"the terms understanding and comprehension are not scientific terms but are commonsense expressions. As with other such expressions, their meaning is fuzzy and imprecise†. In defining the construct of reading comprehension, I adopted Kintschs (1998) theory of human text comprehension, as it is a â€Å"widely-recognized† theory of text comprehension and as it has â€Å"consistently defined the research agenda for the field of text comprehension† (Grabe, 2008, p. 3). The concepts of ‘Comprehension and ‘Understanding are used interchangeably in the present study as â€Å"a matter of linguistic variation† following Kintsch. ‘Comprehension is to be understood in relation to ‘perception and ‘problem solving. Both ‘perception and ‘understanding involve unconscious and automatic processes. They â€Å"can each be described as a process of constraint satisfaction† (p. 3). They differ, however, in that ‘understanding should result in an action, be it â€Å"an overt action in the environment or a mental event† (p. 3). Kintsch (1998, p. 2) stated â€Å"understand is used when the relationship between some object and its context is at issue or when action is required†. As for the ‘problem solving process, it is more complex and involves more demand on cognitive resources. It is an action readers resort to when they fail to understand something. Kintsch (1998) maintained â€Å" perception and understanding are the processes people normally use; when an impasse develops in perception or understanding, they resort to problem solving as a repair process† (p. 3). Reading is the process in which the reader sequentially deals with letters, words and sentences. It was defined by Sheng (2000, p. 2) as â€Å"the process of recognition, interpretation, and perception of written or printed material†. Comprehension, on the other hand, involves the ability of the reader to grasp and interpret the meaning of written material, and to reason about cognitive processes that lead to understanding. In other words, it not only covers cognitive understanding of the materials at both surface and deep structure levels, but also the readers reactions to the content. Sheng (2000, p. 2) maintained â€Å"it is a more complex psychological process and includes in addition to linguistic factors (phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic elements), cognitive and emotional factors†. In sum, the process of reading deals with language forms while the process of comprehension, the end product, deals with language content. The term ‘reading comprehension can, in some respects, be considered a complex construct, as highlighted by numerous reading researchers (Carrell, 1988; Grabe, 1991; Kintsch, 1998; de Beaugrande, 1981). According to Brumfit (1980), reading comprehension is a complex activity covering â€Å"a combination of perceptual, linguistic and cognitive abilities† (p. 3). It is a constructive thinking process which â€Å"involves application, analysis, evaluation and imagination† (Taylor, 1984, p.391). Grabe (2008) attributed the complexity of the reading comprehension process to the multiple purposes of reading and the complex cognitive processes involved. In the present study, reading is viewed as a process of communication between a writer and a reader and this communication will be incomplete unless it is affected by the readers evaluation and appreciation. In fact, both the reader and the writer contribute to the reading process. Despite the uniqueness of second language reading processes (Geva and Wang, 2001; Koda, 2007), second language reading has drawn extensively on first language reading research. Different models have been adopted and adapted based on a variety of L1 reading theories. Below is a review of these theories. Reading Theories In A First Language A reading model provides an imagined representation of the reading process. It provides ways to represent a theory and explain what reading involves and how reading works based on available evidence. Goldman, et al., (2007) explained â€Å"the term model refers specifically to a representation of the psychological processes that comprise a component or set of components involved in human text comprehension† (p. 27). According to Samuels (1994), a good theoretical model has three characteristics: it summarizes a considerable amount of information discovered in the past; it helps explain and make more understandable what is happening in the present, and it allows one to make predictions about the future (p. 816). Researchers, however, are somehow cautious about the comprehensibility of the model because of its inability to account for all the available evidence that exists. Dhieb-Henia (2002) warned that the models are not always backed up by sufficient empirical evidence to val idate (them) (p. 18). In the same fashion, Grabe (2008) argued â€Å"to assert that a model must be an accurate synthesis, () is problematic†. Thus, these researchers recommend that we consider these models as a possible representation of the reading process, rather than absolute models. They nonetheless stress the key role that these models play in â€Å"synthesizing information and establishing central claims† (Grabe, 2008, p. 84). Reviewing the literature, four major approaches have been proposed in an attempt to understand the reading process. The major distinction between the approaches is the emphasis given to text-based variables such as vocabulary, syntax, and grammatical structure and reader-based variables such as the readers background knowledge, cognitive development, strategy use, interest, and purpose (Lally, 1998). The following sections review these approaches and discuss them with reference to the specific context of the present study. The Bottom-Up Approach The concept of decoding is central to what is usually called the bottom-up approach to reading. The term bottom-up originated in perception psychology, where it is used to signify the processing of external stimuli (Mulder, 1996). In reading research, the term is not always used in a consistent manner and has drifted away from the original meaning it had in perception psychology. Nevertheless, the term always focuses on what are called lower order processes, i.e. decoding ability and word recognition ability (Mulder, 1996). These abilities are believed to form the key to proficient reading. In other words, the reader perceives every letter, organizes the perceived letters into words, and then organizes the words into phrases, clauses and sentences. Meaning, at any level, (e.g. word or phrase), is accessed only once processing at previous (e.g. lower) levels has been completed (Carrell, 1988). The argument is that bottom-up processing requires a literal or fundamental understanding of the language. Carrell (1993, p. 2) maintained Reading (is) viewed primarily as a decoding process of reconstructing the authors intended meaning via recognizing the printed letters and words, and building up a meaning for a text from the smallest textual units at the bottom (letters and words) to larger and larger units at the top (phrases, clauses, intersentential linkages. Advocates of this theory argue that successful reading comprehension of a text relies heavily on an efficient application of bottom-up processes. The best known representative of this type of approach is Goughs (1972) model. The model is summarised by Urquhart and Weir as follows: T]he reader begins with letters, which are recognized by a SCANNER. The information thus gained is passed to a DECODER, which converts the string of letters into a string of systematic phonemes. This string is then passed to a LIBRARIAN, where with the help of the LEXICON, it is recognized as a word. The reader then fixates on the next word, and proceeds in the same way until all the words in a sentence have been processed, at which point they proceed to a component called MERLIN, in which syntactic and semantic rules operate to assign a meaning to the sentence. The final stage is that of the Vocal System, where the reader utters orally what has first been accessed through print. (Urquhart Weir, 1998: 40) The decoding approach, however, has been viewed by many as inadequate. According to Eskey (1973), the approach underestimates the contribution of the reader. The reader, according to this approach, does not read the text through a self-determined, predefined perspective or goal, but rather lets the text itself (and therefore its author) determine the reading process (Urquhart Weir, 1998). The approach fails to recognize that readers utilize their expectations about the text based on their knowledge of language and how it works. Similarly, Carrell (1984) stated that this view assumes a rather passive view of reading. Grabe (2008) stated â€Å"we know that such an extreme view of reading is not accurate, and no current model of reading depicts reading as a pure bottom-up process† (p. 89). Criticism of the bottom-up theory has given impetus to the Top- down theory. The Top-Down Approach Whereas the bottom-up approach gives incoming information a central place in the reading process, the top-down approach focuses on the knowledge a reader already possesses. It stresses what are called higher order cognitive processes. The top-down theory posits a non-linear view of the reading process, i.e. from higher levels of processing, and proceeds to use the lower levels selectively. It assumes that readers interrogate the text rather than process it completely. They get meaning by comparing their expectations to a sample of information from the text. The proponents of this theory argue that readers experience and background knowledge is essential for understanding a text. Grabe (2008) explained â€Å"top-down models assume that the reader actively controls the comprehension process, directed by reader goals, expectations, and strategic processing† (p. 89). Carrell (1993, p. 4) stated In the top-down view of second language reading, not only is the reader an active participant in the reading process, but everything in the readers prior experience or background knowledge plays a significant role in the process. In this view, not only is the readers prior linguistic knowledge (â€Å"linguistic† schemata) and level of proficiency in the second language important, but the readers prior background knowledge of the content area of the text (â€Å"content† schemata) as well as of the rhetorical structure of the text (â€Å"formal† schemata) are also important. According to this view, the readers background knowledge may compensate for certain syntactic and lexical deficiencies. Readers start with their background knowledge (whole text) and make predictions about the text, and then verify their predictions by using text data (words) in the text (Urquhart Cyril, 1998). Clarke and Silberstein (1977, p.136-137) stated that â€Å"more information is contributed by the reader than by the print on the page, that is, readers understand what they read because they are able to take the stimulus beyond its graphic representation†. The most frequently cited representative of this approach is Goodmans (1976) top-down model. He defined reading as a process of verifying hypotheses — hypotheses that are based on knowledge which the reader possesses. His model, also called the guessing game theory, is summarised by Bossers as follows: According to Goodman, the reading process consisted of sampling and selecting cues, on the basis of which an interpretation is predicted or guessed, which is subsequently tested against the semantic context, and then confirmed or rejected as the reader processes further language, and so on. These stages of the process were called features of the reading process or effective strategies or effective reading behaviour alternatively. (Bossers,1992:10). A very influential theory that is usually discussed in relation to the top-down perspective is that of schema theory. The prior knowledge gained through experiences, stored in ones mind and activated when readers encounter new information is referred to in the literature as schemata (Carrell, 1980; Widdowson, 1983). Schema Theory Schema theory, which comes from cognitive psychology, owes much to the work of Bartlett (Rumelhart, 1981) and Piaget (Orasanu and Penny, 1986). Schemata, the plural form of schema, also called ‘building blocks of cognition (Rumelhart, 1981, p. 3), refer to â€Å"abstract knowledge structure (s) stored in memory† (Garner, 1987, p. 4). They are defined as the mental framework that helps the learner organize knowledge, direct perception and attention, and guide recall (Bruming, 1995), as cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory (Widdowson,1983) and as the underlying connections that allow new experience and information to be aligned with previous knowledge ( McCarthy ,1991). Within the framework of schema theory, reading comprehension is no longer a linear, text-driven process, but is the process of the interpretation of new information, and the assimilation and accommodation of this information into memory structures or schemata (Anderson Pearson, 1984). Schemata are not static entities, however, but are continually constructed and reconstructed through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. In other words, a comprehension of a text involves activation of relevant schemata, which are initiated as a result of ‘bottom-up observation, and proceeds through a constant process of testing the activated schemata, evaluating their suitability, and refining or discarding them (Rumelhart, (1984, pp. 3, 6). Rumelhart (1981, p. 4) stated â€Å"according to schema theories, all knowledge is packed into units †¦ (which) are the schemata. Embedded in these packets of knowledge, in addition to the knowledge itself, is information about how this Investigation of Tunisian Geography Teachers Investigation of Tunisian Geography Teachers Introduction The purpose of this study was to investigate some Tunisian geography teachers/researchers reading of research articles (RA) in English in their field, in particular their use of metadiscourse and the factors that might affect this use. A combination of quantitative and qualitative methods addressed the purposes of this study. Two major reasons have motivated the choice of this topic: theoretical and contextual. Theoretical Justifications Of The Study A good number of studies have highlighted the facilitative role that metadiscourse plays in reading comprehension (e.g. Camiciottoli, 2003). Metadiscourse is defined, in the present study, as â€Å"self-reflective linguistic material referring to the evolving text and to the writer and to the imagined reader of that text (Hyland and Tse, 2004, p. 156). In defining reading comprehension, I adopted the componential interactive approach (e.g. Grabe, 2008). According to this approach, readers are active participants who actively take knowledge, connect it to previously assimilated knowledge and make it theirs by constructing their own interpretation. They develop, modify and even reflect on all or some of the ideas displayed in the text. Research has shown that second language (SL) and foreign language (FL) reading comprehension process is highly complex (Grabe, 2008; Koda, 2007; Sheng, 2000). Indeed, a wide range of variables intervene in the process: linguistic, metalinguistic, cognitive, metacognitive, social and psychological (Koda, 2005; Pressley, 2006; Rapp et al., 2007). Researchers reported the difficulty to clearly understand the exact degree of the contribution of each variable to the final product. All aspects of the reader variables interact with one another and interact with textual and contextual factors (e.g. Dhieb-Henia, 2003). Different models have been proposed in the literature in order to take account of these factors (the Top-down approach, the Bottom-up approach, the Interactive approach) (Grabe, 2008). Also, there has been a debate among SL reading researchers about whether SL reading is a language problem or a reading problem (Alderson, 1984, Bernhardt and Kamil, 1995; Grabe, 1991; Khaldieh, 2001). Some researchers contended that some SL linguistic knowledge threshold was necessary in order to get first language (L1) reading knowledge to engage and first language reading strategies to transfer (Cummins (1979) threshold level of language proficiency and Clarkes (1978) linguistic ceiling). Others argued that reading difficulties in a SL can be caused by a deficient reading ability in general, or can be caused by a failing transfer of L1 reading ability to an FL (the linguistic interdependence hypothesis, or alternatively called the common underlying principle (Bernhardt Kamil, 1995). Reading in English for Academic purposes (EAP) is still a more complex process (Flowerdew and Peacock, 2001). EAP is concerned with the English required for specific academic purpose such as studying at universities and colleges, doing research or publishing papers. Based on the literature, the present study views EAP reading as the ability to read an EAP discourse as the product of a particular disciplinary culture (e.g., Swales, 2004). Daoud (1991, p. 6), for instance, recommended that non-native readers (of EAP) should acquire â€Å"those abilities which would allow them to recognize the existence of certain types of implicit presuppositional rhetorical information, abilities that the experienced native reader possesses. Studies in Contrastive Rhetoric (CR) have demonstrated that texts are shaped by their cultural origins even if they participate in international discourses such as those of the science disciplines (Burgess, 2002; Connor, 2004; Kaplan, 1966, 1987). Mauranen (1993) asserted that â€Å"science, or more widely, academic research, does not exist outside writing, and so we cannot represent it, or realize it, without being influenced by the variation in the writing cultures that carry it† (p. 4). This suggests that the belief that scientific academic discourses merely transmit natural facts is debatable. Hyland (2005) argued that discourses are never neutral but always engaged in that they realize the interests, the positions, the perspectives and the values of those who enact them (p. 4). The RA, for instance, is a discourse written by a particular writer belonging to a particular scientific discourse community in the purpose of engaging an audience and persuading them of his/her findings (Adel, 2006; Hyland, 2005; Martin, 2004). Webber (1994) explained â€Å"scientists are writers who fight for their ideas to be accepted, recognized, and to be competitive and get their work published† (p. 257). The tendency of scientific writers to choose a particular range of rhetorical devices, might reveal their attempts to establish interpersonal relations, to interact with their audience and to express personal attitudes about the content of their texts and about their audience( s). Metadiscourse is the linguistic system that enables writers to achieve these goals (Adel, 2006; Hyland, 2004; 2005; Martin, 2004). It represents some internal stylistic map whereby an external reality is created and conveyed. Metadiscourse also helps to perceive discourse as a social action between two parties, author(s) and audience, researchers and scientific communities; in other words, writers and readers are viewed as social agents and texts as a social enterprise in which writers do not only want their messages to be understood (an illocutionary effect), but also to be accepted (a perlocutionary effect) (Hyland, 2005). Hyland (2001, p. 550) argues â€Å"a central aspect of the writer-reader dialogue involves careful interpersonal negotiations in which writers seek to balance claims for the significance, originality, and truth of their work against the convictions of their readers†. The readers ability to construct the writer-intended meaning, via metadiscourse, is one ma jor key to a successful comprehension. This idea of interaction was grounded in Hallidays (1985) metafunctional theory of language. Halliday (1985) argued that language is a system of meanings and maintains that the writer needs to operate at three levels: the ideational, the textual and the interpersonal. On the ideational plane, the writer supplies information about the subject of the text and expands propositional content, on the interactive plane, he/she does not add propositional material, but helps readers organize, classify, interpret, evaluate, and react to such material. Many researchers have attempted to investigate the contributions of metadiscourse to language teaching. However, most of the literature on metadiscourse has focused on the writing skill. The immense part of these studies has compared writers use of metadiscourse across cultures and disciplines (Dahl, 2004; Hyland TLe, 2004; Ifantidou, 2005; Lee, 2002; Perez Macia, 2002; Steffensen Cheng, 1996). Only a few studies have examined the role that this crucial part of discourse plays in reading comprehension skill. There is still an opaque picture of the correlation between the recognition of metadiscourse markers and reading comprehension performance. Indeed, a good number of the studies conducted with native readers of English has yielded inconclusive results (e.g., Crismore and Vande Kopple, 1997; OKeefe, 1988). While some researchers demonstrated the positive role of metadiscourse (e.g. Vande Kopple, 2002), other researchers concluded that metadiscourse did not have larger effects in their studies (e.g., Crismore, 1989). Research on the interaction between SL reading and metadiscourse seems to be still in its infancy. The little research carried out has demonstrated the complexity of the entreprise (Camiciottoli, 2003; Daoud, 1991; Dhieb-Henia, 2003; Mustapha and Premalatha, 2001). In fact, research has shown that many factors could intervene in the reading process and hamper EAP readers from using metadiscourse, namely language proficiency, prior disciplinary knowledge and metacognitive strategies (e.g., Camiciottoli, 2003; Daoud, 1991; Dhieb-Henia, 2003). Language proficiency refers to the ability to understand technical and semi-technical language used by a particular academic discourse community. Metacognition is the awareness readers have of their own mental processes and the subsequent ability to monitor, regulate, and direct themselves to a desired end. Prior knowledge includes knowledge of the rhetorical conventions of the genre and the subject discipline. It has been also interesting to note that no study has investigated SL experts use of metadiscourse when reading materials in their fields. Local Justifications Of The Study Reading RAs is a prerequisite for doing research, updating ones knowledge and ultimately publishing RAs. Publication is not optional or a matter of personal choice in Tunisia. The last reform of postgraduate studies has given prior importance to the number of published RAs (Labbassi, 2000). Therefore, researchers who would like to become visible in the international scientific community, have to read and write RAs in English, the international Lingua Frinca in the age of electronic communication. In fact, in Tunisia there are few specialised local journals. Labassi (2008, p. 4120 aptly put â€Å"reading and writing English have become unavoidable conditions for joining academic communities in almost all disciplines†. The Tunisian geographical society seems to be eager to integrate into the international geographic community. Indeed, the Tunisian Geographers Association, in collaboration with the International Geographical Union (IGU), managed to organise the 31st International Geographical Congress (IGC) in the country in 2008. Tunisia was the first Arab and African country to host the biggest appointment for geographers all over the world. Adding to that, there is a clear political intention to enhance English status in Tunisia. English is gaining ground over French, which has been until recently the principal language of modernity, as well as the dominant economic language. (Champagne, 2007; Labassi, 2009a, b; Tossa, 1995). The Tunisian government is aiming at creating an English-speaking workforce to enhance the prospects for successful integration into the global economy. Under the New Maitrise reform of 1998, English was introduced in the curriculum of all undergraduate students from all disciplines (Labassi, 2009 a). What is ironical, however, is that â€Å"potential researchers and professionals who have to read a literature, which is up to 90% in some disciplines in English, are not offered courses in English† (Labassi, 2009 a, p. 249). However, while the literature abounds with arguments for and against the role that metadiscourse plays in reading comprehension, little research has been conducted to assess the reading practices of the Tunisian geography society.Therefore, the present research aims to fill in this gap and gain more insight into the reading practices of some Tunisian university teachers/researchers of geography; in particular it aims to assess the extent they use metadiscourse to facilitate their comprehension of RAs in English in their field and to find out about the variables that may hinder this use. Research Objectives The main aims of the present research are three-fold: (1) to determine to what extent Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when reading research articles in English in their fields, (2) to assess whether this use facilitates their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields, (3) to find to what extent this use is related to the participants proficiency in English, to text familiarity (defined in the present study in terms of both content and formal knowledge) and to their use of metacognitive reading strategies. Research Questions The present study addresses the following questions: 1. To what extent do Tunisian geography faculty researchers use metadiscourse markers when reading research articles in English in their fields? 2. To what extent does this use relate to their comprehension of research articles in English in their fields? 3. To what extent do their proficiency in English, discipline-related knowledge (content and genre) and metacognitive reading strategies contribute to their use of metadiscourse markers and comprehension of research articles in English in their fields? Significance Of The Study This study explored the use of metadiscourse by some Tunisian geography faculty when reading research articles in English in their disciplines. Theoretically, findings from the study can help clarify the role metadiscourse plays in SL reading comprehension. The research into metadiscourse markers is useful in itself. It helps us have an insight into how writers interact with their readers to establish a reader-friendly atmosphere and to persuade them of their findings. Such information can add to our understanding of factors contributing to language pedagogy, in particular to the teaching of reading comprehension skill. At the practical level, information from this study can be useful for making decisions about organizing training sessions to university teachers/researchers to introduce them to the rhetorical conventions of academic genres, namely the research article and to the rhetorical importance of metadiscourse. They should be made aware of the facilitative role of metadiscourse markers when reading academic materials in English. Metadiscourse markers should be taught explicitly in EAP reading comprehension classes as a means to enhance the researchers reading comprehension ability. Thesis Organisation This thesis consists of six chapters. The first chapter describes the background of the research and the context in which the research was conducted. The second chapter comprises two sections: the first is a review of research into the nature of foreign language reading. The second section provides a descriptive account of what metadiscourse is, then explores the studies conducted on the effects of metadiscourse, reviews a few taxonomies on metadiscourse and ends with a description of the taxonomy to be adopted in the present study. Research questions are presented after the discussions of these reviews. Chapter three concerns the methodological decisions taken for this research. It describes how the participants were selected, how the material and instruments were piloted, and which materials and instruments were finally used. It provides as well an account of how the main study was conducted and how the data were analysed. Chapter four reports the findings of the present study. Cha pter five discusses the key findings from this study and highlights their implications for the area of EAP. The contributions and limitations of this research and suggestions for future research are presented in chapter six. Literature Review The previous chapter introduced the context for this research. This chapter clarifies the two central variables underlying the present study, namely EAP reading comprehension and metadiscourse use. It can be divided into three parts. In the first part, I will focus on the reading variable. Since foreign language reading modeling has been strongly influenced by first language reading theories, I will first discuss four different approaches to reading in a first language, I will then explain how they have been adopted in and adapted for a foreign language reading context. Next, I will elaborate on theoretical concepts particular to reading in English for academic purposes (being the focus of the present study) and I will draw attention to studies that investigated the interaction between reading in English for Academic purposes and language proficiency, background knowledge and reading strategies. This part aims at underscoring the complexity of the EAP reading process and the need to account for the many factors intervening in it. In the second part, I will introduce the second variable of the present study, metadiscouse. I will first try to define the concept and then provide an overview of its main assumptions and classifications to highlight the confusion surrounding the term and emphasize its benefits to EAP readers, and last I will detail Hylands (2005) taxonomy, the theoretical framework within which the present study is conducted. In the last part I will review some empirical studies that have investigated the interaction between metadiscourse and EAP reading. This part will also draw attention to the scarcity of research in this area. Reading Comprehension Understanding the processes involved in reading comprehension is a prerequisite to select reliable and valid research instruments. Alderson (2000) stated â€Å"if we are not able to define what we mean by the ‘ability to read, it will be difficult to devise means of assessing such abilities† (p. 49). Likewise, Hogan (2004, p. 1) maintained The real question we are asking when we look at assessing reading is: What distinguishes a good reader from a poor reader? Implicit in this question is an even more fundamental question: What are we doing when we read?† Assessment is an attempt to answer the first question, but if we cannot at least try to answer the second, we do not know what we are assessing, and any measure or description of reading proficiency we suggest is meaningless. Thus, in what follows I will first attempt to define the construct of reading comprehension, and then present a number of models that provide a framework for organizing and explaining the nature of reading comprehension. I will give due prominence, however, to the issues specific to reading in EAP dwelling upon the complex cognitive processes that EAP readers go through when they read. I will try to show how certain variables such as linguistic proficiency, background knowledge and reading strategies interact with reading comprehension process. Definition Of The Construct Of Reading Comprehension Reading comprehension has often been a subject of controversy among teachers and scholars. Kintsch (1998, p. 2) stated â€Å"the terms understanding and comprehension are not scientific terms but are commonsense expressions. As with other such expressions, their meaning is fuzzy and imprecise†. In defining the construct of reading comprehension, I adopted Kintschs (1998) theory of human text comprehension, as it is a â€Å"widely-recognized† theory of text comprehension and as it has â€Å"consistently defined the research agenda for the field of text comprehension† (Grabe, 2008, p. 3). The concepts of ‘Comprehension and ‘Understanding are used interchangeably in the present study as â€Å"a matter of linguistic variation† following Kintsch. ‘Comprehension is to be understood in relation to ‘perception and ‘problem solving. Both ‘perception and ‘understanding involve unconscious and automatic processes. They â€Å"can each be described as a process of constraint satisfaction† (p. 3). They differ, however, in that ‘understanding should result in an action, be it â€Å"an overt action in the environment or a mental event† (p. 3). Kintsch (1998, p. 2) stated â€Å"understand is used when the relationship between some object and its context is at issue or when action is required†. As for the ‘problem solving process, it is more complex and involves more demand on cognitive resources. It is an action readers resort to when they fail to understand something. Kintsch (1998) maintained â€Å" perception and understanding are the processes people normally use; when an impasse develops in perception or understanding, they resort to problem solving as a repair process† (p. 3). Reading is the process in which the reader sequentially deals with letters, words and sentences. It was defined by Sheng (2000, p. 2) as â€Å"the process of recognition, interpretation, and perception of written or printed material†. Comprehension, on the other hand, involves the ability of the reader to grasp and interpret the meaning of written material, and to reason about cognitive processes that lead to understanding. In other words, it not only covers cognitive understanding of the materials at both surface and deep structure levels, but also the readers reactions to the content. Sheng (2000, p. 2) maintained â€Å"it is a more complex psychological process and includes in addition to linguistic factors (phonological, morphological, syntactic, and semantic elements), cognitive and emotional factors†. In sum, the process of reading deals with language forms while the process of comprehension, the end product, deals with language content. The term ‘reading comprehension can, in some respects, be considered a complex construct, as highlighted by numerous reading researchers (Carrell, 1988; Grabe, 1991; Kintsch, 1998; de Beaugrande, 1981). According to Brumfit (1980), reading comprehension is a complex activity covering â€Å"a combination of perceptual, linguistic and cognitive abilities† (p. 3). It is a constructive thinking process which â€Å"involves application, analysis, evaluation and imagination† (Taylor, 1984, p.391). Grabe (2008) attributed the complexity of the reading comprehension process to the multiple purposes of reading and the complex cognitive processes involved. In the present study, reading is viewed as a process of communication between a writer and a reader and this communication will be incomplete unless it is affected by the readers evaluation and appreciation. In fact, both the reader and the writer contribute to the reading process. Despite the uniqueness of second language reading processes (Geva and Wang, 2001; Koda, 2007), second language reading has drawn extensively on first language reading research. Different models have been adopted and adapted based on a variety of L1 reading theories. Below is a review of these theories. Reading Theories In A First Language A reading model provides an imagined representation of the reading process. It provides ways to represent a theory and explain what reading involves and how reading works based on available evidence. Goldman, et al., (2007) explained â€Å"the term model refers specifically to a representation of the psychological processes that comprise a component or set of components involved in human text comprehension† (p. 27). According to Samuels (1994), a good theoretical model has three characteristics: it summarizes a considerable amount of information discovered in the past; it helps explain and make more understandable what is happening in the present, and it allows one to make predictions about the future (p. 816). Researchers, however, are somehow cautious about the comprehensibility of the model because of its inability to account for all the available evidence that exists. Dhieb-Henia (2002) warned that the models are not always backed up by sufficient empirical evidence to val idate (them) (p. 18). In the same fashion, Grabe (2008) argued â€Å"to assert that a model must be an accurate synthesis, () is problematic†. Thus, these researchers recommend that we consider these models as a possible representation of the reading process, rather than absolute models. They nonetheless stress the key role that these models play in â€Å"synthesizing information and establishing central claims† (Grabe, 2008, p. 84). Reviewing the literature, four major approaches have been proposed in an attempt to understand the reading process. The major distinction between the approaches is the emphasis given to text-based variables such as vocabulary, syntax, and grammatical structure and reader-based variables such as the readers background knowledge, cognitive development, strategy use, interest, and purpose (Lally, 1998). The following sections review these approaches and discuss them with reference to the specific context of the present study. The Bottom-Up Approach The concept of decoding is central to what is usually called the bottom-up approach to reading. The term bottom-up originated in perception psychology, where it is used to signify the processing of external stimuli (Mulder, 1996). In reading research, the term is not always used in a consistent manner and has drifted away from the original meaning it had in perception psychology. Nevertheless, the term always focuses on what are called lower order processes, i.e. decoding ability and word recognition ability (Mulder, 1996). These abilities are believed to form the key to proficient reading. In other words, the reader perceives every letter, organizes the perceived letters into words, and then organizes the words into phrases, clauses and sentences. Meaning, at any level, (e.g. word or phrase), is accessed only once processing at previous (e.g. lower) levels has been completed (Carrell, 1988). The argument is that bottom-up processing requires a literal or fundamental understanding of the language. Carrell (1993, p. 2) maintained Reading (is) viewed primarily as a decoding process of reconstructing the authors intended meaning via recognizing the printed letters and words, and building up a meaning for a text from the smallest textual units at the bottom (letters and words) to larger and larger units at the top (phrases, clauses, intersentential linkages. Advocates of this theory argue that successful reading comprehension of a text relies heavily on an efficient application of bottom-up processes. The best known representative of this type of approach is Goughs (1972) model. The model is summarised by Urquhart and Weir as follows: T]he reader begins with letters, which are recognized by a SCANNER. The information thus gained is passed to a DECODER, which converts the string of letters into a string of systematic phonemes. This string is then passed to a LIBRARIAN, where with the help of the LEXICON, it is recognized as a word. The reader then fixates on the next word, and proceeds in the same way until all the words in a sentence have been processed, at which point they proceed to a component called MERLIN, in which syntactic and semantic rules operate to assign a meaning to the sentence. The final stage is that of the Vocal System, where the reader utters orally what has first been accessed through print. (Urquhart Weir, 1998: 40) The decoding approach, however, has been viewed by many as inadequate. According to Eskey (1973), the approach underestimates the contribution of the reader. The reader, according to this approach, does not read the text through a self-determined, predefined perspective or goal, but rather lets the text itself (and therefore its author) determine the reading process (Urquhart Weir, 1998). The approach fails to recognize that readers utilize their expectations about the text based on their knowledge of language and how it works. Similarly, Carrell (1984) stated that this view assumes a rather passive view of reading. Grabe (2008) stated â€Å"we know that such an extreme view of reading is not accurate, and no current model of reading depicts reading as a pure bottom-up process† (p. 89). Criticism of the bottom-up theory has given impetus to the Top- down theory. The Top-Down Approach Whereas the bottom-up approach gives incoming information a central place in the reading process, the top-down approach focuses on the knowledge a reader already possesses. It stresses what are called higher order cognitive processes. The top-down theory posits a non-linear view of the reading process, i.e. from higher levels of processing, and proceeds to use the lower levels selectively. It assumes that readers interrogate the text rather than process it completely. They get meaning by comparing their expectations to a sample of information from the text. The proponents of this theory argue that readers experience and background knowledge is essential for understanding a text. Grabe (2008) explained â€Å"top-down models assume that the reader actively controls the comprehension process, directed by reader goals, expectations, and strategic processing† (p. 89). Carrell (1993, p. 4) stated In the top-down view of second language reading, not only is the reader an active participant in the reading process, but everything in the readers prior experience or background knowledge plays a significant role in the process. In this view, not only is the readers prior linguistic knowledge (â€Å"linguistic† schemata) and level of proficiency in the second language important, but the readers prior background knowledge of the content area of the text (â€Å"content† schemata) as well as of the rhetorical structure of the text (â€Å"formal† schemata) are also important. According to this view, the readers background knowledge may compensate for certain syntactic and lexical deficiencies. Readers start with their background knowledge (whole text) and make predictions about the text, and then verify their predictions by using text data (words) in the text (Urquhart Cyril, 1998). Clarke and Silberstein (1977, p.136-137) stated that â€Å"more information is contributed by the reader than by the print on the page, that is, readers understand what they read because they are able to take the stimulus beyond its graphic representation†. The most frequently cited representative of this approach is Goodmans (1976) top-down model. He defined reading as a process of verifying hypotheses — hypotheses that are based on knowledge which the reader possesses. His model, also called the guessing game theory, is summarised by Bossers as follows: According to Goodman, the reading process consisted of sampling and selecting cues, on the basis of which an interpretation is predicted or guessed, which is subsequently tested against the semantic context, and then confirmed or rejected as the reader processes further language, and so on. These stages of the process were called features of the reading process or effective strategies or effective reading behaviour alternatively. (Bossers,1992:10). A very influential theory that is usually discussed in relation to the top-down perspective is that of schema theory. The prior knowledge gained through experiences, stored in ones mind and activated when readers encounter new information is referred to in the literature as schemata (Carrell, 1980; Widdowson, 1983). Schema Theory Schema theory, which comes from cognitive psychology, owes much to the work of Bartlett (Rumelhart, 1981) and Piaget (Orasanu and Penny, 1986). Schemata, the plural form of schema, also called ‘building blocks of cognition (Rumelhart, 1981, p. 3), refer to â€Å"abstract knowledge structure (s) stored in memory† (Garner, 1987, p. 4). They are defined as the mental framework that helps the learner organize knowledge, direct perception and attention, and guide recall (Bruming, 1995), as cognitive constructs which allow for the organization of information in long-term memory (Widdowson,1983) and as the underlying connections that allow new experience and information to be aligned with previous knowledge ( McCarthy ,1991). Within the framework of schema theory, reading comprehension is no longer a linear, text-driven process, but is the process of the interpretation of new information, and the assimilation and accommodation of this information into memory structures or schemata (Anderson Pearson, 1984). Schemata are not static entities, however, but are continually constructed and reconstructed through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. In other words, a comprehension of a text involves activation of relevant schemata, which are initiated as a result of ‘bottom-up observation, and proceeds through a constant process of testing the activated schemata, evaluating their suitability, and refining or discarding them (Rumelhart, (1984, pp. 3, 6). Rumelhart (1981, p. 4) stated â€Å"according to schema theories, all knowledge is packed into units †¦ (which) are the schemata. Embedded in these packets of knowledge, in addition to the knowledge itself, is information about how this